African Americans from 1865 Essay Example for Free

African Americans from 1865 Essay African Americans have fought a great battle to become a part of society in America. Since being taken from African as slaves in the 1600’s there has been a continuous battle for equality since. Since the end of slavery Black Americans have had many accomplishments along with hardships. In this paper I will discuss some of the Major events in African American history beginning with the end of slavery which has lead to the America we know today. In 1865 Congress passed the thirteenth Amendment stating† Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction† this was the outlawing of slavery and resulted in the established the Freedmen’s Bureau to assist former slaves. President Lincoln and other Republicans were concerned that the Emancipation Proclamation, which in 1863 declared the freedom of slaves in ten Confederate states then in rebellion, would be seen as a temporary war measure, since it was based solely on Lincolns war powers. The Proclamation did not free any slaves in the border states nor did it abolish slavery.[1] Because of this, Lincoln and other supporters believed that an amendment to the Constitution was needed. In many parts of the South, the newly freed slaves labored under conditions similar to those existing before the war. The Union army could offer only limited protection to the ex-slaves, and Lincoln’s successor, Andrew Johnson of Tennessee, clearly had no interest in ensuring the freedom of southern blacks. The new president’s appointments as governors of southern states formed conservative, proslavery governments. The new state legislatures passed laws designed to keep blacks in poverty and in positions of servitude. Under these so-called black codes, ex-slaves who had no steady employment could be arrested and ordered to pay stiff fines. Prisoners who could not pay the sum were hired out as virtual slaves. In some areas, black children could be forced to serve as apprentices in local industries. Blacks were also prevented from buying land and were denied fair wages for their work. This became the beginning of the Reconstruction. The Freedmen’s Bureau was designed to help former slaves make the transition from slavery to freedom after the civil war. It was a federal agency mostly involving blacks of the old confederacy ( Lowe, 1993). The Freedmens Bureau Bill, which created the Freedmens Bureau in March 1865, was initiated by President Abraham Lincoln and was intended to last for one year after the end of the Civil War.[2] The Freedmens Bureau was an important agency of the early Reconstruction, assisting freedmen (freed ex-slaves) in the South. The Bureau was part of the United States Department of War. Headed by Union Army General Oliver O. Howard, a Civil War hero sympathetic to blacks.the Bureau was operati onal from 1865 to 1872. It was disbanded under President Ulysses S. Grant. Their responsibilities included introducing a system of free labor, overseeing some 3,000 schools for freedpersons, settling disputes and enforcing contracts between the usually white landowners and their black labor force, and securing justice for blacks in state courts. The Bureau was renewed by a Congressional bill in 1866 but was vetoed by President Andrew Johnson, who thought it was unconstitutional. Johnson was opposed to having the federal government secure black rights. Congress passed the bill over his veto. Southern whites were basically opposed to blacks having any rights at all, and the Bureau lacked military force to back up its authority as the army had been quickly disbanded and most of the soldiers assigned to the Western Their responsibilities included introducing a system of free labor, overseeing some 3,000 schools for freedpersons, settling disputes and enforcing contracts between the usually white landowners and their black labor force, and securing justice for b lacks in state courts. The Bureau was renewed by a Congressional bill in 1866 but was vetoed by President Andrew Johnson, who thought it was unconstitutional. Johnson was opposed to having the federal government secure black rights. Congress passed the bill over his veto. Southern whites were basically opposed to blacks having any rights at all, and the Bureau lacked military force to back up its authority as the army had been quickly disbanded and most of the soldiers assigned to the Western frontier. The Bureau was able to accomplish some of its goals, especially in the field of education. frontier. The Bureau was able to accomplish some of its goals, especially in the field of education. There is much more African American has to overcome and many victories and defeat, In the process of fighting for equality in 1909 The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People is founded in New York by prominent black and white intellectuals and led by W.E.B. Du Bois. For the next half century, it would serve as the countrys most influential African-American civil rights organization. In 1910, its journal, The Crisis, was launched. Among its well known leaders were James Weldon Johnson, Ella Baker, Moorfield Storey, Walter White, Roy Wilkins, Benjamin Hooks, Myrlie Evers-Williams, Julian Bond, and Kwesi Mfume. Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, the association led the black civil rights struggle in fighting injustices such as the denial of voting rights, racial violence, discrimination in employment, and segregated public facilities. Dedicated to the goal of an integrated society, the national leadership has always been interracial, although the membership has remained predominantly African American. The Harlem Renaissance flourishes in the 1920s and 1930s. This literary, artistic, and intellectual movement fosters a new black cultural identity. After the American civil war, liberated African-Americans searched for a safe place to explore their new identities as free men and women, they found it in Harlem. Also known as the New Negro Movement was a literary, artistic, cultural, intellectual movement that began in Harlem, New York after World War I and ended around 1935 during the Great Depression. The movement raised significant issues affecting the lives of African Americans through various forms of literature, art, music, drama, painting, sculpture, movies, and protests. In 1939 the NAACP established as an independent legal arm for the civil rights movement the NAACP Legal Defense and Education Fund, which litigated to the Supreme Court Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, the case that resulted in the high court’s landmark 1954 school-desegregation decision. The organization had also won a significant victory in 1946, with Morgan v. Virginia, which successfully barred segregation in interstate travel, setting the stage for the Freedom Rides of 1961. 1954 Brown v. Board of Education case: strikes down segregation as unconstitutional. Linda Brown, an eight-year-old African American girl, had been denied permission to attend an elementary school only five blocks from her home in Topeka, Kansas. School officials refused to register her at the nearby school, assigning her instead to a school for nonwhite students some 21 blocks from her home. Separate elementary schools for whites and nonwhites were maintained by the Board of Education in Topeka. Linda Browns parents filed a lawsuit to force the schools to admit her to the nearby, but segregated, school for white students. The Board of Educations defense was that, because segregation in Topeka and elsewhere pervaded many other aspects of life, segregated schools simply prepared black children for the segregation they would face during adulthood. The board also argued that segregated schools were not neccessarily harmful to black children; great African Americans such as Frederick Douglass, Booker T. Washington, and George Washington Carver had overcome more than just segregated schools to achieve what they achieved. The request for an injunction put the court in a difficult decision. On the one hand, the judges agreed with the expert witnesses; in their decision, they wrote: Segregation of white and colored children in public schools has a detrimental effect upon the colored children A sense of inferiority affects the motivation of a child to learn. [8] On the other hand, the precedent of Plessy v. Ferguson allowed separate but equal school systems for blacks and whites, and no Supreme Court ruling had overturned Plessy yet. Because of the precedent of Plessy, the court felt compelled to rule in favor of the Board of Education. [9] The Supreme Court struck down the separate but equal doctrine of Plessy for public education, ruled in favor of the plaintiffs, and required the desegregation of schools across America. The Supreme Courts Brown v. Board of Education decision did not abolish segregation in other public areas, such as restaurants and restrooms, nor did it require desegregation of public schools by a specific time. It did, however, declare the permissive or mandatory segregation that existed in 21 states unconstitutional. [13] It was a giant step towards complete desegregation of public schools. Even partial desegregation of these schools, however, was still very far away, as would soon become apparent. The next year 1955 A young black boy, Emmett Till, is brutally murdered for allegedly whistling at a white woman in Mississippi. Two white men charged with the crime are acquitted by an all-white jury. They later boast about committing the murder. The public outrage generated by the case helps spur the civil rights movement (Aug.). Fourteen-year-old Emmett Till was visiting relatives in Money, Mississippi on August 24, 1955 when he reportedly flirted with a white cashier at a grocery store. Four days later, two white men kidnapped till, beat him, and shot him in the head. The men were tried for murder, but an all-white, male jury acquitted them. Tills murder and open casket funeral galvanized the emerging civil rights movement. Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat at the front of the colored section of a bus to a white passenger (Dec.1). She was arrested and convicted of violating the laws of segregation, known as â€Å"Jim Crow laws.† Mrs. Parks appealed her conviction and thus formally challenged the legality of segregation. In response to her arrest Montgomerys black community launch a successful year-long bus boycott. Montgomerys buses are desegregated on Dec. 21, 1956. 1963Martin Luther King is arrested and jailed during anti-segregation protests in Birmingham, Ala. He writes Letter from Birmingham Jail, which advocated nonviolent disobedience. The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom is attended by about 250,000 people, the largest demonstration ever seen in the nations capital. Martin Luther King delivers his famous I Have a Dream speech. The march builds momentum for civil rights legislation (Aug. 28). Despite Governor George Wallace physically blocking their way, Vivian Malone and James Hood register for classes at the University of Alabama. Four young black girls attending Sunday school are killed when a bomb explodes at the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church, a popular location for civil rights meetings. Riots erupt in Birmingham, leading to the deaths of two more black youths (Sept. 15). 1964 President Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act, the most sweeping civil rights legislation since Reconstruction. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is the nations benchmark civil rights legislation, and it continues to resonate in America. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin. An act to enforce the constitutional right to vote, to confer jurisdiction upon the district courts of the United States of America to provide injunctive relief against discrimination in public accommodations, to authorize the Attorney General to institute suits to protect constitutional rights in public facilities and public education, to extend the Commission on Civil Rights, to prevent discrimination in federally assisted programs, to establish a Commission on Equal Employment Opportunity, and for other purposes. Passage of the Act ended the application of Jim Crow laws, which had been upheld by the Supreme Court in the 1896 case Plessy v. Ferguson, in which the Court held that racial segregation purported to be separate but equal was constitutional. The Civil Rights Act was eventually expanded by Congress to strengthen enforcement of these fundamental civil rights References Of Du Bois and Diaspora: The Challenge of African American Studies. Michael A. Gomez Journal of Black Studies , Vol. 35, No. 2, Special Issue: Back to the Future of Civilization: Celebrating 30 Years of African American Studies (Nov., 2004), pp. 175-194 Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4129300 The Freedmens Bureau and Local Black Leadership Richard Lowe The Journal of American History , Vol. 80, No. 3 (Dec., 1993), pp. 989-998 Published by: Organization of American Historians Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2080411 Harlem Renaissance: Art of Black America Harlem Renaissance: Art of Black America. by Studio Museum in Harlem Review by: George C. Wright The Journal of American History , Vol. 77, No. 1 (Jun., 1990), pp. 253-261 Published by: Organization of American Historians Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2078660 Harlem Renaissance. by Nathan Irvin Huggins Review by: Charles T. Davis American Literature , Vol. 45, No. 1 (Mar., 1973), pp. 138-140 Published by: Duke University Press Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2924561 Mary, E. Q. (2000). African-american history and culture / african-american history and culture: An on-line encyclopedia. The Booklist, 96(12), 1130-1132. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/235465516?accountid=32521 Horne, G. (2006). TOWARD A TRANSNATIONAL RESEARCH AGENDA FOR AFRICAN AMERICAN HISTORY IN THE 21st CENTURY. The Journal of African American History, 91(3), 288-303. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/194472189?accountid=32521 Dr. martin luther king, jr.s letter from a birmingham jail. (1997, Jan 16). Sentinel. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/369387622?accountid=32521

Stone Henge :: European Europe History

Stone Henge Man has always been interested in mystery. Stonehenge is one of the most mysterious places that man has been interested in. Construction began on Stonehenge at about 2200 B.C. (Abels 9). The origin and uses of Stonehenge are still a great mystery. Stonehenge is a ruin of a stone building. Stonehenge is the oldest pre-historic structure in western Europe. The name "Stonehenge" is Saxon in origin and means hanging stones. Stonehenge is visible from around one to two miles (Chippindale 12). It has a plain structure and at first glance Stonehenge appears to be a large pile of rocks. But when looked at more closely, it is a structure of great mystery. (Abels 5). Stonehenge contains close to one hundred and sixty-five stones. All of the stones are arranged in a plain and simple manner. Stonehenge is not very large. It is only about thirty five paces or eighty feet wide. Stonehenge is three hundred and thirty feet above sea level and is eighty miles west of London. Stonehenge is located in Wiltshire in south central England. The closest town to Stonehenge is Amesbury. It is in the center of Salisbury Plains (Chippindale 10). The pillars at Stonehenge are extraordinary. All of the stones appear gray in color, but their natural colors vary from mostly orange to brown or blue. Many lichens grow all over the stones. About one half of the original stone pillars are missing today. All of the joints that join the stone pillars together are dry stone joints. There was no wet sand or clay used to join the pillars together (Chippindale 12). At Stonehenge there are five different types of stone circles. The five types are: outer sarsen circle, outer bluestone circles, inner sarsen trilithons, inner blue horseshoe, and the altar stone. The outer sarsen circle is one hundred feet in diameter. Each stone is about thirteen and a half feet tall and seven feet wide. The space between each of the stones is approximately four feet apart (Chippindale 12). The outer bluestone circle is close to seventy-five feet in diameter. Most of the stones height are six and a half feet or taller. The stones width are between three and four feet. The stones color is blue. Only six of the original sixty stones still remain standing straight. The others either lean or lie on their side. The inner sarsen trilithons lie just inside of the bluestone circle.

Danone History Essay

1.history: The original company bearing the corporate name was founded in 1919 by Isaac Carasso, a Spanish physician of Greek origin, in Barcelona. In 1923, he came up with a unique treatment for patient with digestive problems and he developed a product that he distributed though pharmacies and drug stores, and which soon became a big success-yoghurt. The factory was named Danone, a Catalan diminutive of the name of his first son, Daniel Carasso. Ten years later, the company moved from Spain to neighboring France and the first French factory was built. In 1949, the yoghurt was firstly packaged in a glass can. In 1951, this glass package replaced the porcelain can which was used before and because of this change the yoghurt became more popular and very common in diary healthy alimentation. In 1968, Danone was firstly announced in TV. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=njZNtHoM6ZQ Some years later, they extended their brand by producing â€Å"petit suise† (1972), â€Å"Natillas† (1974) and also the first non-fat (1985). In 1988, Danone commercialized â€Å"Bio Yoghurt†, which nowadays helps us with digestive matters. In 1992, Danone was the main sponsor of the Barcelona 92 Olympic Games which added more popularity to the company. One year later, Danone Institute was born. The aim of this institute is to improve the citizen nutrition habits. In 1995, Danone continued extending its brand by incorporating Actimel, which supposed a revolution in the alimentary world due to its purpose of defense. In 1998, Danone was the official sponsor of France football world championship. 2 years later, they create the official website of Danone: www.Danone.es. In 2004, Danone commercialized â€Å"Danacol†, a product which aim is to reduce cholesterol in a simple and efficient way. Danone launched a campaign in order to encourage families to lead a healthy lifestyle :†Danone Family†. In 2006, Danone started producing soya yoghurts 100 % vegetal. DANONE NOWADAYS†¦ Since 1998, Groupe DANONE has been organised in three business divisions worldwide which, in 2004, represented more than 97% of its consolidated sales: Fresh Dairy Products which groups together yoghurts, desserts and infant foods represent about 50% of the Groupe’s consolidated sales,  Beverages, essentially packaged water, which represent about 25% of consolidated sales and Biscuits and Cereal products, which represent about 22% of consolidated sales. The motors of this supported growth are: a strong health/ well-being positioning, at the heart of concerns of consumers and new consumption opportunities (times or places) combined with the dynamism of the growth of emerging countries. This focus on 3 dynamic categories allows the company to have a determining strategic asset at its disposal to continue to display a growth rate that is higher than the average in the sector. 2.Internationalization: Balanced geographical presence Today nearly 31% of the company’s sales are on emerging markets. This brings Danone close to its target, which is to do 40% of business on emerging markets and 60% in developed countries – a balanced presence that means they benefit from both the high potential of developing economies and the steady demand of more mature markets. In recent years, Group DANONE has built up strong positions on emerging markets to take the number-one place in each of their three core businesses. This successful international expansion rewards a strategy focusing on a limited number of countries, selected for their growth potential, where Danone has the size to achieve significant economies of scale. Products within the reach of most consumers, high-profile brands, and effective, wide-ranging distribution for sales close to consumers are the essential components of our model for profitable growth on emerging markets, which we sum up as affordability, awareness and availability. In Western Europe, too, Group DANONE can look forward to continued, steady growth, building on strengths that include well-established positions. World leadership built on local strength In each of its business lines Danone is a world leader, which gives it a clear competitive advantage in terms of marketing expertise, industrial efficiency, breadth of product ranges and R&D. And in each case, world leadership is built on strong number one positions on local markets, enabling the company to forge both close ties to consumers and balanced, long-term relationships with major retailers., unrivalled familiarity with  local consumers, and a recognized capacity for effective innovation http://www.danone.com/en/company/global-presence.html 3.INTERNAL CHACARTERISTICS: VALUES/FUNCTIONS/ SWOT: -Strengths- In this part of the SWOT analysis we will focus on the strengths of the company. * Brand loyalty Danone disposes of an excellent background which, along with the consumer’s product perception creates this brand loyalty which allows the demand to be inelastic. Therefore Danone guarantees its sells stability. (falta rollo) * Innovation thanks to Danone Institute, this company is able to invest on a regular basis, in R&D, obtaining from it new product lines which fulfill consumer’s needs. * Distribution channels Since the beginnings Danone reaches daily every single supermarket in every corner of the world thanks to its perfectly adapted transportation system which maintains all the products fresh and ready to be consumed. * Danone has a perfect flow of information inside the company. Information travels perfectly, up and down the hierarchical pyramid. Departments have coordination policies in order to take the maximum profit of their resources. This philosophy gives a chance to creativity and allows to improve current product lines as well as to launch new ones. -Weaknesses- * Danone depends basically on daily products. We consider that if the company really wants to keep growing and becoming one of the multinational leaders, it should diversify its income sources. * A main problem Danone has, when willing to grow by exporting outside the EU is that its products are fresh and with a short caducity period. Therefore, if the company wants to take good positioning in foreign markets, it must invest in new facilities. Another option would be to create new product ranges of non-refrigerated yogurts which caducity periods are longer. -Opportunities- Danone Vitalinea has a strong presence in the fat free yoghurt market. Its 56% market share gives Danone the opportunity to invest in R&D in order to launch to the market new fat free products and sell them to the same  consumers. Taking advantage of the increasing personal image concern, Vitalinea should be one of the strongest ranges of Danone Yoghurts, in order to properly supply the latent demand. Some segments of the population are not a target for Danone, and this should change. Danone should be a brand that consumers would buy every time they go to the store. Danone should be a brand that every family should have at home. The way to achieve it is to differentiate its products by offering special flavours and innovative possibilities. The consumer needs to know that Danone is the only brand that can offer the more specialized products, without forgetting about health, quality and price. -Threats- Danone Vitalinea is facing a market where too many products are offered to the different costumers. As we know, Danone Vitalinea has a 56% yoghurt market share, but competitors actually fight for the rest 44%. Danone offers quality products with high prices and competitors offer lower prices for the same type of products. This means that the consumer should receive a big added value when deciding to buy a Danone product. This market is plenty of imported products from other countries that accomplish with health and quality standards that Danone offers. The critical point is that they offer it at a lower price and if consumers decide to change Danone for another cheaper imported brand and they like it, Danone will definitely loose these consumers.

Public School Vs. Public Schools - 929 Words

When most people talk about â€Å"public school† they are actually thinking of average students in a general education classroom, who learn and work at a typical academic pace, introducing the common core and state standards within twelve years. The fact of the matter is that the previous reference to â€Å"school† leaves out 13% of children who attend public school in the United States. If there are 15.1 million students who attend public schools then that is leaving out approximately 1,063,000 students! There are actually quite a few students who attend public school but also have Individual Education Programs in place so that they can find success, in the average classroom setting. Often, the daily routine of these students varies greatly from those students to exclusively experience General Education. The IEP is an important tool and legal document that ensures that students who have exceptional learning needs have equal access to the general education curriculum and will receive the services they need in order to grow and learn alongside peers of their age. It is the cumulative result of the assessments from teachers of professionals who have, with parents, combined their knowledge and developed a clear plan that states the schedule of learning interventions, instructional supports, accommodation or modifications that the student may need in order to be included in the general education classroom and make academic growth. IEP’s are the way that public schools showShow MoreRelatedPublic School Vs. Public Schools2041 Words   |  9 Pagesprinciples of God. Yet we live in a world where at some public school s like Kankakee School District 111 that I attended where the bible isn t taught or spoke on in classes. 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